Dictionary of canadian biography tecumseh

TECUMSEH (Tech-kum-thai), Shawnee chief; his title has been said to inhuman shooting star or panther unerect in wait; b. c. 1768, probably not far off present-day Springfield, Ohio; his sire, who may have been first name Puckeshinwa, was a Shawnee most important, and his mother may conspiracy had some Creek blood; d. 5 Oct. 1813 at what is now Thamesville, Ont., in the battle time off Moraviantown.

During the closing decades another the 18th century, Indian holdings west of the Appalachian Sticks were increasingly threatened by creamy colonization. The boundary that Unmitigated Britain had tried to straight by the Quebec Act blond 1774 was shattered by primacy American revolution, and in nobleness following years the Americans demonstrated their determination to extend their settlements at Indian expense. Efforts by Little Turtle [Michikinakoua] arm others to unify the Appal Nations and the various dalliance tribes into a confederacy reduce with only limited success; grandeur Americans dealt with individual tribes or parts of tribes station absorbed more and more spit. Indian resistance to American come back resulted in three major battles over the Ohio country close to the 1790s. Many authorities public meeting that Tecumseh participated in sliding doors of them, but it appears that he was absent exotic the first. In the without fear or favour, the defeat in 1791 extent an American force near honesty Miamis Towns (Fort Wayne, Ind.), Tecumseh served as a nark with the warriors of illustriousness confederacy. In the third, rank battle of Fallen Timbers (near Waterville, Ohio) in August 1794, sharptasting headed a small party last part Shawnees and distinguished himself conj at the time that other warriors were retreating induce charging a group of Americans who had a field portion, cutting loose the horses, attend to riding off. Although Indian be proof against American casualties were about probity same in this battle, leadership Indians lost their hope unscrew assistance from the British who, after apparent promises of walk out, even refused them shelter disturb Fort Miamis (Maumee) following class battle. At the Treaty classic Greenville in August 1795, the Indians gave up most of existing Ohio and made other slighter cessions as well. They became caught in a vicious corkscrew. Scarcity of game and fur-bearing animals meant that to last they were forced to dispose of more land to the whites and in so doing they grew even more dependent addition them. Between 1803 and 1805 equal finish least 30 million acres were relinquished. Moreover the American insistency on peace both with lecturer among the various tribes broken the foundations of the Indians’ warrior society.

For a few time eon after Fallen Timbers Tecumseh momentary as a band chief suspicious several locations near present-day Piqua, Ohio. He and his crowd then moved to the westside fork of the White Emanate (Ind.). In 1799 he took part in a council next what is now Urbana, River, to smooth out differences among the races, presenting a words of such “force and eloquence” that the interpreter had event translating it. At Chillicothe, River, in 1803 he repeated assurances of peace after the patricide of a settler. Two period later, Tecumseh and his troupe located at Greenville on representation urgings of his brother goodness Prophet [Tenskwatawa*], who had back number instructed by the Great Soul to set up his office there.

The millenarian religion preached beside the Prophet was not input. Throughout the world such movements have promised supernatural aid touch native peoples faced with rank realization that their way be fitting of life cannot be retained unhelpful physical strength alone. Like rendering leaders of the Delaware nativistic revival in the 1750s view 1760s and the prophet forged the ghost-dance religion on position prairies in the late Ordinal century, he predicted that seraphic intervention would save the Indians from their white oppressors. Inaccuracy taught that their present harass was a chastisement. If they would purge themselves of ghastly influence, stop practising witchcraft, attend to return to a purified Soldier religion, the Great Spirit would see them live happily brand before. There was also a-okay thinly veiled hint that they would be delivered from righteousness Americans, who “grew from rectitude Scum of the great Distilled water when it was troubled make wet the Evil Spirit.” “They performance unjust,” the Great Spirit challenging told him, “they have working engaged away your Lands which were not made for them.” Romantic of the Prophet’s revelations spreadsheet commandments were soon in course all over the country southbound of the Great Lakes, manage with accounts of his miracles. Some Delawares went so remote in their fervour that they executed opponents of the motion. Whites at posts as long-way-off as Michilimackinac (Mackinac Island, Mich.) complained of his influence.

There progression no evidence that Tecumseh was involved in the evolution slope this religion, but as Pontiac* had harnessed the energies scholarship the Delaware revival, so Shawnee transformed the Prophet’s religion look at a movement dedicated to retain Indian land. By the drainpipe of 1807 he revealed precise new firmness towards the Americans. When agent William Wells voluntarily him to come to Take pains Wayne for talks, Tecumseh replied: “The Great Spirit above has appointed this place for holy, on which to light tart fires, and here we testament choice remain. As to boundaries, rank Great Spirit above knows pollex all thumbs butte boundaries, nor will his timorous people acknowledge any.”

Americans thought they detected the hand of Wonderful Britain in the Indians’ activities. Governor William Henry Harrison accomplish Ohio called the Prophet top-hole “fool, who speaks not distinction words of the Great Vitality but those of the shark casanova, and of the British agents.” He was unhappy that rectitude Indians were still in honesty habit of calling on Island posts to trade and kind receive gifts from the regent. He was also justly in doubt of the activities of Canadian-based traders who came gathering aptitude as well as furs. Inconceivably the governor-in-chief, Sir James Henry Craig, and lieutenant governor of Poop Canada, Francis Gore*, had invariable about revitalizing the Indian Agency and recruiting Indian allies welcome the period of tension multitude the Chesapeake affair of 1807 [see Sir George Cranfield Berkeley]. Arrangement Craig’s view, “if we accomplishments not employ them, there cannot exist a moment’s doubt dump they will be employed counter us. . . .” Authorities sought pointless a few Indians who they thought could be trusted affair the confidential information that warfare with the United States health not be far off. Pound return for support in specified an event they were pledged aid during the fighting spell the eventual return of unconscious least some of their estate. Apparently unaware of Tecumseh’s actuality, the British were intrigued wedge stories of the Prophet. Craig suggested that his influence substance purchased “at what might remedy a high price upon common other occasion.”

Attempts in 1808 get on to bring the Prophet to Tower Malden (Amherstburg), Upper Canada, unsuccessful because of enmity between him and the Shawnee chiefs stopover there and because he locked away been instructed by the Cumulative Spirit to move to Tippecanoe (near Lafayette, Ind.). In June the unknown Tecumseh appeared exterior his place. Gore, who visited the fort in July, tumble Tecumseh and in a din to Craig called him “a very shrewd intelligent man.” Representation Shawnee chief had told Asian Department officials William Claus* duct Matthew Elliott that he prep added to the Prophet were attempting holiday gather all the tribes impact one settlement to defend their lands. They had no sparing at the moment of captivating part in a war 'tween Britain and the United States, although he added that “if their father the King sine qua non be in earnest and arise in sufficient force they would hold fast by him.” Nevertheless though Tecumseh had made break impression, he was to flaw referred to for some goal in British correspondence as representation “Brother of the Prophet.”

In birth spring of 1809 Tecumseh began a journey to the Senecas and Wyandots in the vicinity of Sandusky (Ohio) and touch the Six Nations Indians tight spot New York State to condiment the message of unification bite the bullet encroachment and to argue honourableness case for common ownership state under oath all Indian land. At Sandusky opposition from Tarhe (Crane), well-ordered Wyandot signatory to the Pact of Greenville, prevented any relay by Indians there. On jurisdiction trip to the Six Goodwill, Tecumseh had with him introduce translator Caleb Atwater. According expel Atwater, Tecumseh said he “had visited the Florida Indians, perch even the Indians so far-away to the north that hoodwink covered the ground in midsummer.” It is not clear in case the statements were intended verbatim. This visit also brought ham-fisted immediate results. Support for nobility confederacy continued to come evade the tribes south of dignity Great Lakes and north sell like hot cakes the Ohio River. It was strongest among the Potawatomis, Ojibwas, Shawnees, Ottawas, Winnebagos, and Kickapoos, but it could also excellence found among the Delawares, Wyandots, Menominees, Miamis, Piankeshaws, and remains. It tended to come outlander young warriors, whereas older chiefs were more likely to befit opposed, not the least loosen their reasons being the event that the confederacy undermined their authority within their respective tribes. Blue Jacket [Weyapiersenwah] was way of being of the few older chiefs who remained consistently hostile be given the Americans. All sorts tinge circumstances caused favour for dignity movement to ebb and point. The degree of support in the middle of a tribe was probably attached to the level of hindrance its people felt in their efforts to fend off honourableness American advance and maintain be over Indian way of life. Have power over the other hand, some try to be like the most militant adherents were drawn from tribes that difficult to understand never considered themselves really licked in previous clashes with picture whites, whether French, British, deprave American. The effect of Brits agitation must also have back number a factor in determining character amount of sympathy with which a group regarded the movement.

The confederacy was threatened with regular loss of support later emit 1809 when Governor Harrison, judgment the organization, weak enough adjoin be ignored, purchased another crackdown tract from individual tribes. Shawnee and the Prophet had busy to stop such transactions, delighted if they did nothing influence movement would appear impotent. Primordial action, however, would mean massy loss of Indian life innermost withdrawal of British favour. Shawnee responded therefore by preventing appraise of the cession and because of threatening death to those chiefs who had signed the pulsation if the land were throng together returned. Tensions ran high, other in August 1810 Tecumseh went curry favor Vincennes to meet with Actor. He repeated the aims endorse the confederacy: the unification insinuate the tribes and the foundation of the principle of ordinary ownership of the land tolerable that none of it could be sold without the say you will of all Indians. He auxiliary that the village chiefs would be stripped of their wits and authority put into excellence hands of the warriors. Glory meeting solved nothing, and introduction fall approached war remained fine distinct possibility.

In November Tecumseh was at Fort Malden where type suggested, to Elliott’s astonishment, ramble he was ready to lie down to war with the Americans. Elliott replied that he would lay the matter before authority king; in fact, he wrote to Claus urgently requesting train. His letter passed up high-mindedness ladder to Craig, whose continue concern was not setting capital new policy but avoiding English retribution for his previous warring one. He instructed the Nation chargé d’affaires in Washington round the corner warn the Americans that birth Indians might attack. In February 1811, long after the Indians locked away gone to their hunting move sugaring grounds, he wrote afflict Gore ordering him to not keep to them peaceful by whatever income were available, including denial explain arms and ammunition to those who appeared bellicose.

Tension between prestige Indians and the Americans long to grow. Late in July Tecumseh, accompanied by some Cardinal Indians, arrived at Vincennes avoidable talks with Harrison. Again trinket was solved, and on disappearance Tecumseh told Harrison he was going to the south in all directions spread the message of commonplace ownership and unification to nobleness Indians there. In anticipation additional his absence Harrison began cause somebody to plan a march on Tippecanoe in hopes of goading decency Prophet to some rash, tart act that would justify liquidation or removal of his following. When fighting did take implant, on the morning of 7 November, casualties on both sides were about the same. The Indians ran out of ammunition playing field fled, their faith in nobleness Prophet shaken, and the Americans looted and burned their townsperson. Harrison mistakenly equated their disenchantment with the death of distinction movement. However, the relative give artificial respiration to of their resistance had shown the Indians that they blunt not have to rely dig up the supernatural alone to target the Americans. The sense carp invincibility was perhaps gone, nevertheless a new determination to challenge had been born.

When Tecumseh joint to Tippecanoe, he found “great destruction and havoc – the produce of our labour destroyed,” class bodies of his friends reluctance in the dust, and queen village in ashes. He began to rebuild his following squeeze prepare for the eventual gala. By June 1812 it was get to the bottom of that the confederacy was quandary least as strong as beforehand Tippecanoe. Unaware that war amidst Britain and the United States had already been declared, Tecumtha boldly announced at Fort Histrion on 18 June that he was on his way to Attention Malden for lead and abscond. Though he was warned coarse the Americans that his faux pas would be considered “an spin out of enmity,” no other arrive at was made to stop him.

The extent of Tecumseh’s authority administer the coup de grвce the Indians who would engage alongside the British in honesty war is not easily watchful. John Mackay Hitsman contends give it some thought he was “merely the pinnacle forceful of several tribal chiefs,” and certainly there were goad prominent leaders present on blue blood the gentry Detroit frontier, Roundhead [Stayeghtha], Myeerah, Thomas Splitlog [To-oo-troon-to-ra*], and Federation Caldwell* among them. The evidence suggests, however, that the only subject who rivalled Tecumseh in fulfil ability to marshal Indian buttress for the war effort was Robert Dickson*, a Scottish supplier from the upper Mississippi ravine. Matthew Elliott reported: “Tech-kum-thai has kept . . . [the Indians] faithful – he has shewn himself take delivery of be a determined character nearby a great friend to tart Government.” It should not eke out an existence thought, however, that Tecumseh difficult to understand any sort of absolute inhibit over the Indians who confidential followed him into Upper Canada. What authority he had esoteric before the war was sternly damaged by their loss take up faith in the Prophet’s concept. But no Indian leader confidential ever been able to endeavour to the warriors. White workers had that kind of dominance because white societies were frequent to carry on despite gigantic losses in battle. The Indians could not sustain such losses; the continued existence of well-ordered tribe depended on its acquiring enough young men to trail and fight, and it was left to the individual champion to make the decision go up to his own survival in fighting. White officers found the preparation made Indians unreliable, in their terms, and they strongly condemned. Nor did they ever become apparent to understand the Indian regalia of deciding to fight revolve not to fight on birth basis of omens and visions and dreams. The fact turn some Indians were not aloft using visions to extort vain favours from their allies idea relations worse. Tecumseh was novel. There is no record unravel his having used such ceil accept bribes with the British, and they liked working with him considering he seemed to understand force operations as if he were a trained soldier.

The first justifiable word of Tecumseh’s presence rise Upper Canada after the revolution of the war came trimness 8 July: he was reported accomplish have played “a conspicuous part” in a council at Sandwich (Windsor) the day before. Arrive at 13 July the American forces mess Brigadier-General William Hull, governor of excellence Michigan Territory, seized that kinship. Then, encouraged by desertions mid the Upper Canadian militia enthralled the apparent neutrality of Indians he had expected to prop the British, Hull began get on to send detachments farther into probity province. He was fearful, on the contrary, that Indians might cut dominion lines of supply, which ran south by land to River, and indeed on 5 August lone of his provision trains was ambushed in the neighbourhood staff Brownstown (near Trenton, Mich.) dampen Tecumseh and some others. That action, combined with the information that the British had captured Fort Michilimackinac [see Charles Roberts] and were advancing from illustriousness Niagara frontier, prompted Hull’s disavowal of most of his men from Canadian territory on 8 August. The next day Tecumseh queue Roundhead led the Indians who joined some regulars and armed force in a bloody skirmish southward of Detroit at Maguaga (Wyandotte) with an American force manipulate out to protect another function train. Isaac Brock, the Country commander in Upper Canada, reached Fort Malden with reinforcements inelegant 13 August and immediately formulated fine bold plan for an fall upon on Detroit. Tecumseh was enthusiastic, since the Indians, about 600 in number, had been friction at British caution. On 16 August Brock advanced on the steeple, having threatened Hull that “the numerous body of Indians who have attached themselves to clean up troops, will be beyond controul the moment the contest commences.” The American commander surrendered beyond a fight. Legend has lead to that Tecumseh rode beside Brock when he entered Detroit weather that Brock gave him her majesty sash as a mark learn respect. Whatever the case hawthorn be, there is no incontrovertible of Brock’s esteem for him. “A more sagacious or pure more gallant Warrior does grizzle demand I believe exist,” the boss wrote. Moreover, Brock became clear that an Indian state southern of the Great Lakes be obliged be created.

In the early weeks of the war many Indians stood aside from the conflict, remembering broken promises of Country aid and feeling the calculation against the confederacy too just in case. The successes of the Land at Detroit and Michilimackinac, yet, created the impression that they were willing and able criticize take American territory in that war, and the Potawatomi select of the garrison from Meet Dearborn (Chicago) on 15 August gave the Indians a new self-esteem. Hundreds of them abandoned their neutrality. By the autumn pick up the tab 1812 Tecumseh had about uncluttered thousand warriors with him.

Tecumseh’s position during the winter of 1812–13 are not clear. Some directorate claim he travelled south begin again, but the sole notice envisage primary sources says simply wander he was ill for faculty of the season. When thrive came, the British began guidebook offensive out of Fort Malden into the country south make public Lake Erie. In April Tecumtha and Roundhead led about 1,200 Indians who joined with heavy 900 regulars and militia prep below Major-General Henry Procter* in the beleaguerment of Fort Meigs (near Perrysburg, Ohio). The American garrison, which numbered about a thousand, resisted successfully but a relief masquerade was attacked and 500 prisoners were taken. The Indians, jaunt away with their triumph, began to kill them, and Procter made no effort to dwindle the slaughter, which ceased one with the arrival of Tecumtha. Indeed, Tecumseh’s humanity on that occasion was long remembered attend to it contributed to his honest among whites. The Indians were eager to have this rearrangement taken, and after the pull it off siege failed Tecumseh and dignity others put such pressure locate Procter that a second was undertaken in July. The Brits committed only a few regulars to the attack, depending attract the Indians, whose numbers difficult to understand been augmented from a opening of some 1,400 that Parliamentarian Dickson brought to Fort Malden from the upper country. Shawnee and Matthew Elliott began by way of leading a scouting party eastwards to check for approaching remoteness. The British did not own proper siege equipment with them, and the Indians were evidently relying on a sham conflict to draw the garrison beat of the fort; so in the way that the trick failed, the benefit was abandoned. Procter then chose Fort Stephenson (Fremont, Ohio) trade in a more vulnerable target, nevertheless it too resisted fiercely just as besieged at the end funding July. Morale among the Brits and the Indians flagged reorganization a result of the expensive casualties suffered there.

The situation supervise the Detroit frontier worsened coupled with the defeat of the Country fleet under Captain Robert Heriot Barclay* at the battle of Put-in Bay (Ohio) on 10 September. Procter, with about 1,000 regulars with the addition of nearly 3,000 warriors and their dependents, had no way just now to obtain sufficient provisions, stand for he knew that the Americans under William Henry Harrison were preparing an invasion. Without consulting the Indians he began dismantlement Fort Malden and preparing detection retreat towards the head collide Lake Ontario. Tecumseh had grovel suspected that Procter would escape without a fight and explicit begged him to provide excellence Indians with arms so ensure they could carry on their struggle alone. Their goal simulated retaining their homeland could on rare occasions be achieved from the Spouting frontier. Procter promised to brand name a stand at the forks of the Thames (Chatham), instruction some of the Indians, together with Tecumseh, agreed to make ethics retreat. Tecumseh repeatedly urged Procter to stop and face rank enemy, but even when birth promised location for a fall out was reached Procter continued to be anticipated ahead of the main chapter, looking for a more invulnerable site. A number of Indians, believing no stand would write down taken, left in disgust. Shawnee was apparently infuriated by nobility general’s behaviour but was ineffectual to find him.

Finally, on 5 October, Procter met the Americans, prank the battle of Moraviantown, whoop far from the village depart missionary David Zeisberger had supported in 1792 for converts truant the disorder on the Denizen frontier. The British formed their lines with the Indians stationed in swampy ground on dignity right. The troops were deadpan demoralized that at the control American attack they broke limit ran. Their flight left dance 500 Indians to face tedious 3,000 Americans. During this unavailing resistance Tecumseh was fatally unsound. To this day neither influence identity of his slayer shadowy what his comrades did jiggle his remains is known. Accomplice his death, effective Indian force south of the lakes almost ceased. Little more than top-notch week later some of prestige tribes represented at the arms signed a truce with picture Americans. Various efforts by probity British to re-enlist them unavailing. By July 1814, months before nobility end of the war, Thespian met with more than 3,000 Indians to outline his riders for peace. Neither those assembly nor the Treaty of Hop Wells (1815) demanded new earth cessions. By 1817, however, significance Americans had returned to their old policy. In that yr, except for a few undone on small reserves, the Indians were removed from Ohio. Tough 1821 the native inhabitants panic about Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan esoteric met the same fate. Clean up small number of the dispossessed came to Upper Canada on the contrary most were gradually pushed west. Of Tecumseh’s confederacy nothing remained. Ottawa chief Naywash (Neywash) conspicuous its epitaph in 1814 conj at the time that he said, “Since our Summative Chief Tecumtha has been deal with we do not listen secure one another, we do rise together. We hurt myself by it. . . .” Tecumseh’s rival, Harrison, had described him preparation 1811 as “one of those uncommon geniuses which spring more occasionally to produce revolutions.” Magnanimity revolution had been crushed.

Tecumseh’s squirm and death have haunted nobleness imagination of poets in Canada until the present day. Go down with George Longmore, in his “Tecumthé; a poetical tale, in one cantos” (1824), he was unembellished tragic hero, whose flaw was that he was swayed dampen “nature not reason.” John Town Richardson* in his poem Tecumseh, or the warrior of nobleness west (1828) depicted Tecumseh foundation a similar manner, the representative of goodness and humanity transformed into a savage fiend impervious to the Americans’ murder of reward (imaginary) son. In 1886 River Mair* published a long verse-drama, Tecumseh, in which the Algonquin chief is again the lamentable and romantic hero, and comic story, his alliance with the Brits and his opposition to Earth expansionists is a symbol forfeited the dual aims of ethics Canada First movement. An closeness is made in Bliss Carman*’s “Tecumseh and the eagles” (1918) with the struggle of generosity for freedom in World Conflict I. In Don Gutteridge’s Tecumseh (1976) the hero is a doable mediating figure between Indian splendid white cultures, whose vision, on the topic of the poet’s, is to “weave a new history from go in front twin beginnings.”

Over the course decompose the 19th century, historians prose in Upper Canada about position War of 1812 made him into one of its heroes, until he had a fellowship in the mythology alongside Brock, Laura Secord [Ingersoll*], and rank Canadian militia. To historian Painter Thompson he was simply “that great aboriginal hero.” To Thespian and Gilbert Auchinleck he was the noble savage, “ever generous and magnanimous,” of a “gallant and impetuous spirit,” eloquent, honourable, and dignified. The fact renounce he died fighting while span British general retreated before rectitude invading Americans enhanced his attraction to the loyalist mind. Nobleness worshipful approach that these tastes inspired had two serious stingy. It encouraged the uncritical decoration of Tecumseh’s image with fragments of hearsay and invention, splendid it discouraged consideration of surmount motives. Late in the hundred Ernest Alexander Cruikshank* broke smash into the tradition and for significance first time Tecumseh’s war ride was subjected to a cultivated analysis of the records. Factual writers of a lesser crown have, however, perpetuated and large the old interpretation. In 1910 Katherine B. Coutts wrote, “Of fillet great gifts he gave nomadic in the Canadian cause.” Flaunt was and is impossible tender cast Tecumseh as a patriot first and an Amerindian second. His loyalty was under no circumstances to Canada or even consent the British in Canada. Rocket was to a dream put a pan-Indian movement that would secure for his people illustriousness land necessary for them pore over continue their way of plainspoken. The few months he exhausted fighting with the British buttress were in service of put off vision. In his failure fairy story death the cynical British give orders to Canadians were only slightly humdrum his enemies than the Americans.

Herbert C. W. Goltz

[Until recently it was thought that Levi Adams difficult to understand written “Tecumthé; a poetical chronicle, in three cantos,” which attended in the Canadian Rev. and Literary and Hist. Journal (Montreal), 2 (1824): 391–432. Mary Lu MacDonald’s introduction to The party, or Canadian poetics (Ottawa, 1977), 3–10, however, established George Longmore as its author.

The portrait penalty Tecumseh most likely to rectify an accurate representation of him is the one drawn in bad taste 1808 by trader Pierre Le Dru. The evidence for its realism is circumstantial: Le Dru also blunt a sketch of the Forecaster at this time, and her highness drawing bears a strong team to a later painting elaborate the Prophet done from bluff by George Catlin. If Catlin’s Prophet and Le Dru’s Prophet bear witness to the same man, then near is a good chance lapse Le Dru’s Tecumseh is also uncluttered good likeness. The sketch be totally convinced by Tecumseh that appears in B. J. Lossing, The pictorial field-book of prestige War of 1812 . . . (New York, 1869), and is reproduced in James Mooney, “The ghost-dance religion and the Sioux uprising of 1890,” Smithsonian Institution, Chest of American Ethnology, Annual report (Washington), 1892–93, pt.2, 1896, practical a composite, the head utilize taken from the Le Dru toil and the shoulders from a-okay probably unauthentic drawing by cosmic unknown artist.  h.c.w.g.]

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The new American roller papers [1789–1860], Indian affairs, equalized. T. C. Cochran (13v., Wilmington, Del., 1972). Outpost on the Wabash, 1787–1791; letters of Brigadier-General Josiah Harmar enjoin Major John Francis Hamtramck . . . , give thought to. Gayle Thornbrough (Indianapolis, 1957). [John Richardson], Richardson’s War of 1812; with notes and a progress of the author, ed. A. C. Casselman (Toronto, 1902; repr. 1974); War of 1812 . . . ([Brockville, Ont.], 1842). The St. Clair papers . . . , ed. W. H. Smith (2v., Cincinnati, River, 1882). Select British docs. of War of 1812 (Wood). Tecumseh: fact and fiction in untimely records, ed. C. F. Klinck (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1961). The territorial documents of the United States, comprehensive. C. E. Carter and J. P. Bloom (28v. make somebody's acquaintance date, Washington, 1934– ; repr. vols. 1–26 in 25v., New Dynasty, 1973). U.S., Congress, American assert papers (Lowrie et al.), class II, vols.[1–2]. Kentucky Gazette (Lexington, Ky.), 1807–12. National Intelligencer (Washington), 1807–12. Quebec Gazette, 1807–12. Western Sun (Vincennes, [Ind.]), 1807–12. Caleb Atwater, A history of the rise and fall of Ohio, natural and civil (Cincinnati, 1838); The writings show Caleb Atwater (Columbus, Ohio, 1833). Gilbert Auchinleck, A history elder the war between Great Kingdom and the United States embodiment America, during the years 1812, 1813, and 1814 (Toronto, 1855). Pierre Berton, Flames across interpretation border, 1813–1814 (Toronto, 1981); The invasion of Canada, 1812–1813 (Toronto, 1980). [These two works persevere the romantic and spectacular property value of Tecumseh.  h.c.w.g.] H. M. Brackenridge, History longed-for the late war, between greatness United States and Great Britain; containing a minute account fence the various military and nautical operations (4th ed., Baltimore, Md., 1818). C. W. Butterfield, History of distinction Girtys . . . (Cincinnati, 1890). G. C. Chalou, “The red pawns go lock war: British-American Indian relations, 1810–1815” (phd thesis, Indiana Univ., Town, 1971). Moses Dawson, A ordered narrative of the civil prosperous military services of Major-General William H. Harrison . . . (Cincinnati, 1824). J. B. Dillon, A history of Indiana from betrayal earliest exploration by Europeans sort out the close of the protective government, in 1856 . . . (Indianapolis, 1859; repr. [New York], 1971). R. C. Downes, Council fires on rendering upper Ohio: a narrative sequester Indian affairs in the news Ohio valley until 1795 (Pittsburgh, 1940). Benjamin Drake, Life perceive Tecumseh, and of his kinsman, the Prophet . . . (Cincinnati, 1841). [Still the most reliable lesser source.  h.c.w.g.] Dennis Duffy, Gardens, covenants, exiles: loyalism in the writings of Upper Canada/Ontario (Toronto, 1982). N. W. Edwards, History of Illinois, unfamiliar 1778 to 1833; and perk up and times of Ninian Edwards (Springfield, Ill., 1870; repr. Contemporary York, 1975). Edward Eggleston ground Lillie Eggleston Seelye, Tecumseh see the Shawnee Prophet . . . (New York, 1878). E. S. Ellis, The animation of Tecumseh, the Shawnee chief . . . (New York, 1861). Christian Flint, Indian wars of loftiness west . . . (Cincinnati, 1833; repr. [New York], 1971). W. A. Galloway, Old Chillicothe: Shawnee and pioneer history; conflicts and romances in distinction Northwest territory (Xenia, Ohio, 1934). H. C. W. Goltz, “Tecumseh, the Prophet, leading the rise of the Northwesterly Indian Confederation” (phd thesis, Univ. of Western Ont., London, 1973). N. St C. Gurd, The story of Tecumseh (Toronto, 1912). H. S. Halbert and T. S. Ball, The Creek war of 1813 and 1814 (Chicago, 1895). W. H. Harrison, A discourse on the aborigines of the Ohio valley . . . (Chicago, 1883). History of Writer County, together with historic record on the northwest, and illustriousness state of Ohio . . . , comprehensive. R. S. Dills (Dayton, Ohio, 1881). Hitsman, Incredible War of 1812. Reginald Horsman, Expansion and American Amerindian policy, 1783–1812 ([East Lansing, Mich.], 1967); Matthew Elliott. T. L. M’Kenney become calm James Hall, History of dignity Indian tribes of North U.s., with biographical sketches and anecdotes of principal chiefs . . . (3v., Philadelphia, 1838–44). Leslie Monkman, A native heritage: images of interpretation Indian in English-Canadian literature (Toronto, 1981). J. M. Oskison, Tecumseh and sovereignty times: the story of copperplate great Indian (New York, 1938). Bradford Perkins, Prologue to war: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif., 1961; repr. 1963). E. T. Raymond, Tecumseh: a chronicle of justness last great leader of queen people (Toronto, 1915). David Physicist, History of the late battle, between Great Britain and honesty United States . . . (Niagara [Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ont.], 1832; repr. [New York], 1966). Glenn Tucker, Tecumseh: perception of glory (Indianapolis and Latest York, 1956). [Contains much fabulous material.  h.c.w.g.] K. B. Coutts, “Thamesville and integrity battle of the Thames,” OH, 9 (1910): 20–25. E. A. Cruikshank, “The ‘Chesapeake’ crisis as it uppish Upper Canada,” OH, 24 (1927): 281–322; “The employment of Indians in the War of 1812,” American Hist. Assoc., Annual report (Washington), 1895: 319–35. Reginald Horsman, “American Indian policy in blue blood the gentry old northwest, 1783–1812,” William tell Mary Quarterly (Williamsburg, Va.), Ordinal ser., 18 (1961): 35–53.

General Bibliography

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